Important Towns on Rivers ( GEOGRAPHY )

Town	River	Town	River
Allahabad	At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna	Kota	Chambal
Patna	Ganga	Jabalpur	Narmada
Varanasi	Ganga	Ujjain	Kshipra
Kanpur	Ganga	Surat	Tapti
Hardwar	Ganga	Jamshedpur	Swarnarekha
Badrinath	Alaknanda	Agra	Yamuna
Delhi	Yamuna	Guwahati	Brahmaputra
Mathura	Yamuna	Kolkata	Hooghly
Ferozpur	Satluj	Sambalpur	Mahanadi
Ludhiana	Satluj	Cuttack	Mahanadi
Srinagar	Jhelum	Serianagapatnam	Cauvery
Lucknow	Gomti	Hyderabad	Musi
Jaunpur	Gomti	Nasik	Godavari
Ayodhya	Saryu	Vijayvada	Krishna
Bareilly	Ram Ganga	Tiruchirapalli	Cauvery
Ahmedabad	Sabarmati

National Parks and Wild Life Sancturies of India ( GEOGRAPHY )

National Parks and Wild Life Sancturies of India

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Name of the National Parks	State and famous For
Gir Forests	Home of Asiatic lion, Gujarat
Kaziranga Sanctuary	One horned rhino, Assam
Manas Sanctuary	One horned rhino, Assam
Chandraprabha Sanctuary	2nd home of Asiatic lion, Uttar Pradesh
Ghana or Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary	Bharatpur, Rajasthan
Dachigam Sanctuary	Hangul, Kashmir
Corbett National Park	Home of Tiger, Uttaranchal
Kanha National Park	Madhya Pradesh
Shiv Puri National Park	Madhya Pradesh
Hazaribagh National Park	Jharkhand
Periyar Game Sanctuary	Elephants, Kerala
Dudhwa National Park	Uttar Pradesh
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu
Nokrek National Park	Meghalaya
Sariska Sanctuary	Rajasthan
Ranthambhor National Park	Rajasthan
Namdapha National Park	Arunachal Pradesh
Keibul Lamjo Floating National Park	Manipur
Palamau Tiger Project	Bihar
Simlipal National Park	Orrisa
Ranganthittoo Bird Sanctuary	Mysore, Karnataka
Nagarhole National Park	Karnataka
Mudumalai Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu
Balpakram Sanctuary	Meghalaya
Bandipur Sanctuary	Along the Karnataka - Tamil Nadu Border
Jaldapara Sanctuary	Rhinos, West Bengal
Wild Ass Sanctuary	Wild Ass, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

Indian States & Union Territories ( GEOGRAPHY )

INDIAN STATES

States	Capital	Since	Former Capital
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	1972	—
Andhra Pradesh	Hyderabad	1956	—
Assam	Guwahati	1972	Shillong (1874-1972)
Bihar	Patna	1936	—
Chhattisgarh	Raipur	2000	—
Goa	Panaji	1961	—
Gujarat	Gandhinagar	1970	Ahmedabad (1960-1970)
Haryana	Chandigarh	1966	—
Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	1948	—
Jammu and Kashmir	Srinagar (Summer)	1948	—
	Jammu (Winter)
Jharkhand	Ranchi	2000	—
Karnataka	Bengaluru	1956	—
Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	1956	Kochi (1949-1956)
Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	1956	—
Maharashtra	Mumbai	1960	—
Manipur	Imphal	1947	—
Meghalaya	Shillong	1970	—
Mizoram	Aizawl	1972	—
Nagaland	Kohima	1963	—
Orissa	Bhubaneshwar	1948	Cuttack (1936-1948)
Punjab	Chandigarh	1966	Lahore (1936-1947)
			Shimla (1947-1966)
Rajasthan	Jaipur	1948	—
Sikkim	Gangtok	1975	—
Tamil Nadu	Chennai	1956	—
Tripura	Agartala	1956	—
Uttaranchal	Dehradun	2000	—
Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	1937	—
West Bengal	Kolkata	1905	—

INDIAN UNION TERRITORIES

States	Capital	Since	Former Capital
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Port Blair	1956	—
Chandigarh	Chandigarh	1966	—
Dadra and Nagar Haveli	Silvassa	1961	—
Daman and Diu	Daman	1987	—
Delhi (NCT)	Delhi	1956	—
Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	1956	—
Puducherry	Puducherry	1954	—

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

INDIA AT A GLANCE

India, the seventh largest country of the world, accounts for about 2.4% of the total world area. It is bounded by the great Himalayas and other snowy mountains in the north. The country stretches southwards and at the Tropic of Cancer, narrows down and ends into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the East and the Arabian Sea on the West.

Location
India lies on the Northern Hemisphere between parallels of latitude 37o6’ and 8o4’ North and between the Meridians of longitude 68o7’ E and 97o25’ East.

Dimensions
The land area covered by Indian mainland is 32, 87,780 Sq Kms. It measures about 3214 Kms from North to South and 2933 Kms from East to West. The length of the Indian coastline is 7615 Kms. It is bounded by Arabian Sea in the West, the Indian Ocean in the South and the Bay of Bengal in the East. The coastline of India is not indented and the sea on the coast is not very deep. The Western coast is rocky while the Eastern coast is shallow. Therefore, India does not have many good harbours. Only Mumbai and Goa are natural harbours while all the other are artificial.

Population
India is the second largest country in the World in terms of population. According to the 2001 census, the population of India was about 10287 crore (16.87% of the World population). The number of males in 2001 was 53.13 crore while the number of females was 49.57 crore. The density of population in India is about 324 persons per square km. The life expectancy is 64 years and the present literacy rate in 2005 was 65.38 percent.

Neighbours
To the North of the country lie China, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. The East of the country is surrounded by Myanmar and Bangladesh. Towards the West of India lies Pakistan and in the South, the Indian mainland is surrounded by Sri Lanka.

INDIAN AGRICULTURE
India primarily has an agrarian economy. About 2/3rd of the population is engaged in agricuture and it provides livelihood to about 60% of the population. About 43% of the total land area in India is under agricultural cultivation. It is the second largest contributor to the national income, and accounted for 16% of the national income.

Major Soil Types
The major types of soil found in India are:

i. Alluvial Soil – Alluvial soil is formed due the deposition of particles such as silt, gravel and sand by the rivers in the plains. It is the most fertile soil form found in India and is generally found in regions of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Haryana and parts of West Bengal. This soil type facilitates the cultivation of cereals, pulses, sugarcane and wheat.

ii. Black Soil - Also known as the cotton soil, this soil type is rich in iron, lime and alluminium. It covers 30 percent of the total area of the country. Black soil is generally found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and facilitates the cultivation of cotton, wheat, oil seeds and tobacco.

iii. Red Soil – This soil is red in colour because of the presence of Iron oxides. It is mainly found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and Chattisgarh and facilitates the cultivation of wheat, millets, potato and chillies.

iv. Laterite Soil – Laterite soil is highly leached and the least fertile soil type found in India. It is mainly found in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and facilitates the cultivation of tea, coffee, and cashew nut.

Largest Producers of Major Food Crops

Crops		State
Rice	1	West Bengal
	2	Punjab
Wheat	1	Uttar Pradesh
	2	Punjab
Maize	1	Madhya Pradesh
	2	Andhra Pradesh
Total Coarse Cereals	1	Maharashtra
	2	Karnataka
Total Pulses	1	Madhya Pradesh
	2	Uttar Pradesh
Total Foodgrains	1	Uttar Pradesh
	2	Punjab
Groundnut	1	Gujarat
	2	Tamil Nadu
Rapessed & Mustard	1	Rajasthan
	2	Uttar Pradesh
Soyabean	1	Madhya Pradesh
	2	Maharashtra
Suflower	1	Karnataka
	2	Andhra Pradesh
Total Oilseeds	1	Madhya Pradesh
	2	Maharashtra
Cash Crops Sugarcane	1	Uttar Pradesh
	2	Maharashtra
Cotton	1	Maharashtra
	2	Gujarat
Jute & Mesta	1	West Bengal
	2	Bihar
Potato	1	Uttar Pradesh
	2	West Bengal
Onion	1	Maharashtra
	2	Gujarat

MAJOR RIVERS OF INDIA
There are four major river routes found in India. These are:

1) Himalayan Rivers – The Himalayan Rivers are snow fed and have water throughout the year. During monsoon heavy rainfall in the Himalayan region causes frequent floods in these rivers. The major Himalayan rivers are:
• The Indus and its tributaries- Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
• The Ganges and its tributaries- Yamuna, Chambal, Betwa, Sone, Ghagra, Gandak, Gomti etc.
• Brahmaputra and its tributary - Tista.

2) Peninsular Rivers - The Peninsular rivers are only rain fed and fluctuate in volume and a large number of streams dry up after monsoon. The major peninsular rivers are:
• Mahanadi
• Krishna
• Kaveri – known as the “Ganga of South India”.
• Godavari
• Narmada
• Tapi (also known as Tapti)

3) Coastal Rivers - The coastal rivers, especially on the West Coast, are short and have limited catchment areas. Most of these are non-perennial as well. Periyar, Mithi and Mandovi are major coastal rivers of India.
4) Rivers of the inland drainage basin - The rivers on the inland drainage basin consists of those in Western Rajasthan which are very few and short lived, like the Sambhar, which is lost in the desert sands, and the Loni that drains into the Rann of Kutch.

Major River Projects

Name of the Project	River	State
Bhakra Nangal Project	Satluj	Punjab
Damodar Valley Project	Damodar	Jharkhand
Farakka Barrage Project	Ganga	West Bengal
Hirakund Dam Project	Mahanadi	Orissa
Nagarjunasagar Project	Krishna	Karnataka
Tehri Dam Project	Bhilangana, Bhagirathi	Uttrakhand

INDIA’S MINERAL WEALTH

India has certain basic and useful minerals such as iron and coal. India is very rich in iron, coal, aluminium, limestone, manganese, titanium, thorium and mica but does not have large reserves of mineral oil, sulphur, lead and tin.

India is the largest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings, ranks third in the production of coal, fourth in iron ore, sixth in bauxite and manganese ore, tenth in aluminium and eleventh in crude steel.

1. Iron
Ranked fourth in the world in iron ore production, India has almost one-fourth of the world’s iron ore reserves. Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa are major iron bearing areas. Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Keonjhar, Bonai and Mayurbhanj (all Orissa) are areas with richest iron deposits in the world. The major iron ore mines are at Chanda, Bastar and Durg districts in Chhattisgarh.

2. Manganese
Ranked sixth in the world for production of manganese, India is a major exporter of manganese and possesses one-third of the world’s reserves. It is an important mineral used for the production of steel. A major portion of the deposits is found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

3. Mica
India’s is the world’s largest producer of Mica. The majority of this product (almost 60%) comes from Jharkhand. Apart from Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh are the major producers of Mica in the country. Since the domestic consumption is not very large most of the Mica produce
is exported.

4. Coal
Ranked third in the production of coal, 80 per cent of the coal is extracted from the mines in West Bengal and Jharkhand. Huge coal reserves exist in Rani Ganj (West Bengal) and Jharia (Jharkhand). Other coal bearing areas are in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

5. Bauxite
Bauxite is an aluminium ore which is mainly found in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. These are also the largest aluminium producing areas of the country.

Major Indian Industries and Industrial Regions
• Aircraft - Bangalore and Kanpur.
• Cement - Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
• Cotton Textile - Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• Glass - Firozabad, Jabalpur, Amritsar, Ambala, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
• Jute - West Bengal
• Leather - Kanpur, Batanagar, Dighaghat, Deonar, Chembur, Chennai, Agra, Coimbatore and Bangalore.
• Paper - Nepanagar, Pune, Saharanpur, Orissa, and Mumbai.
• Rail Engine and Coaches - Chittaranjan Locomotives Works at Chittaranjan, Diesel Locomotives at Varanasi, Rail Coaches at Integral Coach Factory at Perambur and Rail Coach Factory at Kapurthala.
• Silk - Karnataka, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir.
• Sugar - Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Tamil Nadu.

IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES ( geography )

Durand Line : Boundary between India & Afghanistan.
Hindenburg Line : Boundary between Germany & Poland.
McMohan Line : Boundary between China & India.
Maginot Line : Boundary between France & Germany.
Radcliffe Line : Boundary between India & Pakistan.
17th parallel : Defined the boundary between North Vietnam & South Vietnam before the two were united.
38th parallel : Boundary line between North Korea & South Korea.
49th parallel : Boundary line between USA & Canada.
Siegfried Line : The line between Germany and France

SOBRIQUETS ( GEOGRAPHY )

NEW NAMES OF COUNTRIES AND STATES ( GEOGRAPHY )

NATIONAL EMBLEMS OF COUNTRIES ( GEOGRAPHY )

COUNTRIES, CAPITALS AND CURRENCIES ( Geography )

Country	Capital	Currency
Afghanistan	Kabul	Afghani
Albania	Tirane	Lek
Algeria	Algiers	Dinar
Principality of An Dorra	Andorra La Vieille	Franc
Angola	Luanda	Kwanza
Argentina	Buenos Aires	Peso
Australia	Canberra	Australian Dollar
Austria	Vienna	Schilling
Bahrain	Manama	Bahraini Dinar
Bangladesh	Dhaka	Taka
Barbados	Bridgetown	Barbados Dollar
Belgium	Brussels	Euro
Belize	Belmopan	Belize Dollar
Benin	Porto Novo	Franc
Bhutan	Thimphu	Ngultrum (fixed at par with Indian rupee)

Country	Capital	Currency
Bolivia	La paz/Sucre	The Boliviano
Botswana	Gaborone	Pula
Brazil	Brasilia	Real
Bulgaria	Sofia	Lev
Burundi	Bujumbura	Burundi Franc
Cambodia	Phnom-Penh	Riel
Cameroon	Yaounde	CFA Franc
Canada	Ottawa	Dollar
Central African Republic (CAR)	Bangui	CFA Franc
Chad	N’Djamena	CFA Franc
Chile	Santiago	Peso
China	Beijing	Renmimbi (Yuan)
Colombia	Bogota	Colombian Peso
Congo	Kinshasa	Congolese Franc
Costa Rica	San Jose	Costan Rican Colon
Cuba	Havana	Peso
Cyprus	Nicosia	Cyprun Pound
Czech Republic	Prague	The Koruna
Denmark	Copenhagen	Danish Krone
Djibouti	Djibouti	Djibouti Franc
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo	Peso
Ecuador	Quito	US Dollar and Sucre
Egypt	Cairo	Egyptian Pound
El Salvador	San Salvador	Colon
Equatorial Guinea	Malabo	CFA Franc
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	Birr
Fiji	Suva	Dollar
Finland	Helsinki	Euro
France	Paris	Euro
Gabon	Liberville	CFA Franc
The Gambia	Banjul	Dalasi
Germany	Berlin	Euro
Ghana	Accra	Cedi
Greece	Athens	Euro
Grenada	St. George’s	East Carribean Dollar
Guatemala	Guatemala City	Quetzal

Country	Capital	Currency
Guyana	Georgetown	Guyana Dollar
Honduras	Tegucigalpa	Lempira
Hong Kong	Victoria HK	Dollar
Hungary	Budapest	Forint
Iceland	Reykjavik	Krona
India	New Delhi	Rupee
Indonesia	Jakarta	Rupiah
Iran	Teheran	Rial
Iraq	Baghdad	Iraqi Dinar
Ireland	Dublin	Euro
Israel	Jerusalem	New Shekel
Italy	Rome	Euro
Jamaica	Kingston	Dollar
Japan	Tokyo	Yen
Jordan	Amman	Dinar
Kenya	Nairobi	Shilling
Korea (North)	Pyongyang	Won
Korea (South)	Seoul	Won
Kuwait	Kuwait City	Kuwaiti Dinar
Laos	Vientiane	Kip
Lebanon	Beirut	Pound
Libya	Tripoli	Libyan Dinar
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Ringgit
Malawi	Lilongwe	Kwacha
Maldives	Male	Rufiya
Mauritius	Port Louis	Maurituan Rupee
Mongolia	Ulan Bartor	Tugrik
Myanmar (Burma)	Yangon	Kyat
Namibia	Windhoek	Dollar
Nepal	Kathmandu	Nepalese Rupee
Netherlands	Amsterdam	Euro
New Zealand	Wellington	NZ Dollar
Nigeria	Abuja	Naira
Norway	Oslo	Krone
Oman	Muscat	Rial
Pakistan	Islamabad	Rupees
Peru	Lima	New Sol
Philippines	Manila	Peso

Country	Capital	Currency
Poland	Warsaw	Zloty
Portugal	Lisbon	Euro
Puerto Rico	San Juan	US Dollar
Qatar	Doha	Riyal (QAR)
Romania	Bucharest	Leu
Russia	Moscow	Rouble
Rwanda	Kigali	Franc
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh (Royal), Jeddah (Administrative)	Rial
Seychelles	Victoria	Rupee
Singapore	Singapore City	Singapore Dollar
South Africa	Pretoria (Administrative),Cape Town (Legislative)	Rand
Spain	Madrid	Euro
Sri Lanka	Colombo	Rupee
Sudan	Khartoum	Dinar
Sweden	Stockholm	Krona
Switzerland	Berne	Franc
Syria	Damascus	Syrian Pound
Taiwan	Taipei	New Taiwan Dollar
Tanzania	Dodoma	Shilling
Thailand	Bangkok	Baht
Tunisia	Tunis	Dinar
Turkey	Ankara	Turkish Lira
Uganda	Kampala	Uganda Shilling
United Arab Emirates (UAE)	Abu Dhabi	Dirham
United Kingdom (UK)	London	Pound Sterling
United States of America	Washington D.C.	Dollar
Uruguay	Montevideo	Peso
Venezuela	Caracas	Bolivar
Yemen	Sana’a	Rial
Zambia	Lusaka	Kwacha
Zimbabwe	Harare	Dollar

SMALLEST POPULOUS COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD ( GEOGRAPHY )

MOST POPULOUS COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD ( GEOGRAPHY )

Most Populous Countries

THE PEAKS OF THE WORLD ( Geography )

The Tibetan name for Mt. Everest is Chomolungma, which means “Goddess mother of the world”. The 10 highest peaks of the World, all of which are in the Himalayas, are as follows
* Source – World Atlas

THE SEAS OF THE WORLD ( GEOGRAPHY )

The 10 largest seas of the World and the area covered by them

The world’s largest salt water lake (Inland sea), is Russia’s Caspian Sea. It has an area of 372,000 Sq. Km.

The largest fresh water lake is Lake Superior, Canada, with an area of 82,100 Sq Km.

LARGEST AND SMALLEST COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

The 10 Largest Countries

The 10 Smallest Countries

CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD ( GEOGRAPHY )

IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS ( GEOGRAPHY )

i. Latitude and Longitude - Latitude is the angular disance of a point on the Earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the centre of the Earth. Longitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator, east or west of the Prime Meridian (the meridian that passes through Greenwich near London).

ii. International Date Line – It is the line that passes through 180º East or West meridian of longitude which falls on the opposite side of the Greenwich meridian. One day is added when this line is crossed East to West and a day is deducted when the line passes West to East.

iii. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) – GMT refers to the 0º longitude that passes through Greenwich near London.

iv. Indian Standard Time (IST) - IST refers to the longitude that passes through Allahabad and is hours ahead of the GMT.

v. Solstice - It is the date on which the Sun shines vertically over a tropic when the days and nights are the longest and the shortest. On the 22nd of June the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and this date is termed as Summer Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere and Winter Solstice for the Southern Hemisphere. Similarly, on December 22nd, the Sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn. Hence it is Summer Solstice for Southern Hemisphere and Winter Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere.

vi. Equinox - It means two days during the year when the day and night are almost equal throughout the World because the Sun shines vertically over the Equator. March 21st is called the Vernal Equinox and September 23rd is called the Autumnal Equinox.

vii. Equator - The Equator represents the imaginary line passing around the Earth midway between the North and South poles. It divides the Earth into two equal parts.

viii. Meridians - They represent the imaginary lines drawn out on the global map from pole to pole and perpendicular to the Equator. Prime Meridian is the 0 degree meridian, which passes through Greenwich, a place near London.

ix. Aphelion - Aphelion refers to that position of the Earth in its orbit, when it is at the greatest distance from the Sun (about 152 million kms). The Earth reaches this position during the northern summer. This term also refers to the position of any other planet or a comet, when it is at its greatest distance from the Sun.

x. Perihelion - Perihelion refers to the nearest point of a heavenly body in its orbit around the Sun. The Earth at perihelion is at a distance of about 147 million kms from the Sun.

xi. Apogee - Apogee refers to the position of the orbit of the moon when it is at its greatest distance from Earth. This is approximately 406,000 kms for the Earth.

xii. Perigee - Perigee refers to the point of the moon when it is at its minimum distance from the Earth. This distance is approximately 364,000 kms.

xiii. Cyclone - Any area of low pressure around which the air turns in the same direction as the Earth is a cyclone. In the Indian Ocean, a tropical storm with masses of air turning rapidly round a low pressure area is called a tropical cyclone.

xiv. Typhoon - It is the name given to a tropical cyclone in the Far East.

xv. Hurricane - It is a tropical storm in the Caribbean or West Pacific Ocean, with extremely strong winds. The wind force reaches 12 on the Beaufort scale.

xvi. Tornado - It is a type of whirlwind which is formed by rising air currents associated with large cumulonimbus clouds. It rotates in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
xvii. Estuary - It is the tidal mouth of a river where the salt water of the tide meets the fresh water of the river current.

xviii. Isobars - Lines on the map denoting places experiencing equal pressure.

xix. Isobaths - Lines denoting equal depths in the Sea.

xx. Isobronts - Lines joining places experiencing a thunderstorm at the same time.

xxi. Isochrones - Lines joining places located at equal travel time from a common centre.

xxii. Isogonics - Lines joining places with the same magnetic declination.

xxiii. Isorymes - Lines denoting places experiencing equal frost.

xxiv. Isoseismics - Lines denoting places experiencing equal seismic activity.

Structure of the Earth( GEOGRAPHY )

THE EARTH

Earth is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth largest in size. It is also the largest amongst its planetary system’s terrestrial planets, making it the largest solid body in the solar system, and it is the only planet in the universe known to support life. The Earth was formed around 4.57 billion years ago and its largest natural satellite, the Moon, was orbiting it shortly thereafter, around 4.533 billion years ago.

THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH

The Earth’s shape is that of an oblate spheroid, with an average diameter of approximately 12,742 km (~ 40,000 km /p).

THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH

The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 ×1024 kg. It comprises of iron (35.1%), oxygen (28.2%), silicon (17.2%), magnesium (15.9%), nickel (1.6%), calcium (1.6%) and aluminum (1.5%).

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.

1. Earth’s Hydrosphere
The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature that distinguishes ‘The Blue Planet’ from the other planets in the Solar System. Approximately, 71% of the Earth is covered by water and only 29% is solid land.



The Earth’s hydrosphere mainly consists of oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The average depth of the oceans is 3,794 m (12,447 ft), more than five times the average height of the continents.

2. Earth’s Atmosphere : It consists of the following layers:
• Troposphere - This is the lowermost part of the atmosphere in which we live, and which is the theatre for almost all the weather phenomena.
• Stratosphere - Above troposphere is the stratosphere, which is important primarily because of the presence of ozone. This layer of calm and clear air is preferred for high-speed jet flights because of the absence of air pockets.
• Mesophere - Above stratosphere is mesosphere, which is more of a transitional layer.
• Ionosphere - Above mesosphere lies the ionosphere, which has electrically conducting layers that help in radio communication.
• Exosphere - The outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere is known as the Exosphere.

Kinds of Rocks
Rocks are naturally occuring aggregate of minerals. The Earth’s crust and mantle are formed of rocks. The study of rocks is called Petrology. Rocks are classified by their mineral and chemical composition, texture of the constituent particles and the process by which they are formed. The transformation of one rock type to another through geographical process is called the Rock Cycle.

Types of Rocks

i. Igneous Rocks – Igneous rocks are formed when the molten magma or lava slowly cools and crystallises within the Earth’s crust. Examples of the Igneous rock are granite,basalt, etc.

ii. Sedimentary Rocks – Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of organic and non-organic matter over a period of time. The process of deposition is called sedimentation. Commonly known sedimentary rocks are coal, limestone, sandstone etc.

iii. Metamorphic Rocks – Pressure and change in temprature under the Earth’s surface cause Igneous and Sedimentary rocks to undergo change. This change leads to the formation of Metamorphic Rocks.

THE WORLD WARS ( World History )

World War I (Aug 14, 1914 to Nov 11, 1919)

Major Participants
1. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey formed a group known as the Central powers.
2. England, France, Belgium and Serbia later joined by Russia and Italy, were known as the Allied powers.

Causes of War
The First World War was a consequence of
1. assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria,
2. initiation of war against Serbia by Austria,
3. mobilization of forces against Austria-Hungary by Russia.

Outcome
The Allied forces won the war, Treaty of Versailles was signed, which curbed the power of the German Empire and led to the creation of many new countries in Eastern Europe.

World War II (1939 to 1945)

Major Participants
1. Allied Powers - Britain, Russia, USA, and France.
2. Axis Powers (central powers) - Germany, Italy and Japan.

Causes of War
The Second World War was a consequence of
1. rise of the Nazi party in Germany.
2. treaty of Versailles which was against Germany.
3. the expansion policy of Japan.

Outcome
The Allied forces won the war and Germany was divided into two parts. Russia and the US became the biggest powers in the World. The end of war led to the Cold War amongst the industrialised countries.

The Cold War (1947-1991)
The Cold War refers to the period of geopolitical and economic struggle that emerged after the World War II between the US and its allies and Russia and its allies. The phase lasted from 1947 till the division of erstwhile Soviet Union in 1991. This stage was referred to as the Cold War because members of both the blocs were faced with a fear of hostile attack from its enemies. The era of cold war led to a large scale development of weapons including nuclear weapons. It also led to economic warfare and trade embargoes between nations. Japan had full support of the US and Russia supported all the erstwhile Soviet Union members. The war finally came to an end in 1991 with the dissolution of Warsaw Pact which led to the division of the Soviet Union.