1. Stone Age
The Stone Age, or the stages of early man can be classified into:
Paleolithic Age – This period was essentially the stage of hunters and food gatherers. They used crude tools made of flakes. They had no knowledge of cultivation and house building. They lived on roots and fruits. By the end of the Paleolithic Age, the flint industry came up. The important development of this age was the emergence of Homo-Sapiens.
Mesolithic Age – This age was the transition between the Paleolithic & the Neolithic Ages. Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage, they domesticated animals. They used microlith - a small raw-stone tools.
Neolithic Age – These people used tools and implements of polished stone. They particularly used stone axes. Parashurama became an important axe-wielding hero. Dwelling pits, ceramics, a variety of stone and bone tools and a complete absence of microliths marked this age. Cattle, sheep and goat were domesticated. Men became food producer.
2. Chalcolithic Age
Copper was the first metal used by men.
3. Indus Valley Civilization
The most important event of ancient Indian history was the development of Indus Valley Civilization. This Civilization prospered on the banks of river Indus. It extended from Jammu in the North to Daimabad in the South, and covered various regions of Gujarat. The main sites which have been found in the excavation are:
• Kalibangan in Rajasthan
• Lothal in Gujarat (Sea Port)
• Banwali in Haryana
• Ropar in Punjab.
• Mohenjodaro in Pakistan (Great Bath)
The Indus Valley Civilization existed between 2350 BC and 1750 BC. The main cities associated with the civilization were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal. The main feature of this civilization was Town Planning. They had great buildings, well-planned roads, cities and drainage systems. Trade and agriculture were the main sources of livelihood for the people. The people of Indus Valley were the first to produce cotton. Mother Goddess was the most important deity of worship. Wheat was the main food crops. They did not know about Iron.
4. Vedic Period
This period is marked by the entry of the Aryans, who were originally inhabitants of Central Asia around the Caspian Sea and probably came through the Hindu Kush Mountains. The period in which they existed was between 1500-600 BC.
The Main Features of the Aryans were:
i) They were admirers of nature and worshipped the Sun, Fire and Water.
ii) Indra was an important deity for the Aryans.
iii) Metal iron was used for the first time during this period in 1000 BC.
iv) Sanskrit was first time introduced in India by Aryans.
The following religious books were written during this period:
i) Vedas: These were their most sacred books.
They were four in number, viz. :
a) Rig Veda – The oldest, and it contained prayers of God, Vayu, Varun, Indra and Agni.
b) Sam Veda – It dealt with music.
c) Yajur Veda – It dealt with formulae, sacrifices and rituals.
d) Atharva Veda – It dealt with medicines.
ii) The Upanishads: They are the foundation stones of Indian Philosophy and are 108 in numbers. Satyameva Jayate (Truth Alone Triumphs) is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
5. Rise of Religions
The two major religions that came into prominence after the vedic period:
i) Buddhism - Initiated by a Kshatriya prince of the Shakya clan, Siddhartha, (who later came to be known as Buddha) around 6th century BC. Siddhartha was born in 567 BC at Lumbini in Kapilavastu (present day Nepal). He was the son of king Shuddhodana. He went in search of truth and attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya, and delivered his first sermons at Sarnath in U.P. He died at Kushinagar in U.P.
The main Buddhist teachings of the eight–fold path of
• right faith
• thought
• action
• livelihood
• efforts
• speech
• remembrance and concentration
• belief in nirvana (freedom from the cycle of birth and death)
Ahimsa and law of karma were recorded in Triptikas, the religious book of Buddhists.
ii) Jainism - Initiated by Rishabha Dava (a Kshatriya prince), Jainism attained peak under Vardhamana Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara). Mahavira was born at Kundagrama in 540 BC. He left his house at the age of 30 years and attained ‘Kaivalya’ (Perfect knowledge) at the age of 42 years. He became a ‘Jina’ (one who has conquered happiness and misery) and died at Pavapuri (present day Bihar).
The major teachings of Jainism were based on the Tri-ratna concept and the Tri-ratna concept was based on
a) Right knowledge,
b) Right faith
c) Right conduct.
• Religious book - Agam (In Pali Language)
• Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a famous religious place of Jainism.
6. Magadha Empire (6th Century BC - 4th Century BC)
Major dynasties of the Magadha Empire were:
i) Haryanka Dynasty - Bimbisara and Ajatashatru laid the foundation of this dynasty in 684 BC.
ii) Shishunaga Dynasty - This dynasty was founded by Shishunag in 413 BC after defeating the last king of the Haryanka dynasty.
iii) Nanda Dynasty – This dynasty was founded in 382 BC by Mahapadma Nanda.
7. Alexander’s Invasion of India
• Alexander, after establishing his Kingdom in present day Pakistan, crossed the river Indus and invaded India.
• He defeated Porus, the ruler of Punjab in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC and extended his kingdom till India.
• He founded the city of Alexandria in present day Afghanistan.
8. The Age of Mauryas (321-198 BC)
• Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Maurya Empire.
• Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) was in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and he had written the book titled Arthashastra.
• Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador who came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and wrote the book titled ‘INDICA’.
• Ashoka (273-232 BC) was the important king of this dynasty.
• Ashoka fought the Kalinga war (261 BC) and after that war he adopted Buddhism.
• Ashoka was the first Indian king to talk directly to the people throughout his empire.
• The Ashoka pillar of Sarnath is the most popular of the Eelics left by Ashoka. It has four lions standing back to back which is adopted as the emblem of modern day Republic.
• The last king of Maurya empire Brihadratha was killed by his commander in chief Pushyamitra Sunga
9. Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire was founded by the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi Confederation around 1st century BC.
• Kanishka was the most important king of the empire. He founded the Saka Era in 78 AD.
• His capital was at Pursushpura (now Peshawar).
• He was responsible for organizing the 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir.
• Both Gandhar and Mathura art forms developed during Kanishka’s reign.
10. Gupta Empire
It was founded by Chandragupta I (320-325 AD). He started the Gupta Era in 320 AD. Other important kings of the Gupta empire were:
i) Samudra Gupta (335-380 AD): He was known as the Napoleon of India. His coins depicted him as playing the musical instrument Veena.
ii) Chandragupta II (380-412 AD): He was also known as Vikramaditya.
• Chinese Pilgrim, Fa-hien came in his court.
• Aryabhatta and Kalidas were among the ‘Nine Gems’ or distinguished men at the court of Chandragupta II. With Chandragupta II began the Vikram Era in 58 BC.
iii) Kumaragupta I of this dynasty built the Nalanda University (in present day Bihar).
11. Harshvardhana
Harshvardhana was the last important king of North India.
• His capital was at Kannauj.
• Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrime came to his court.
• Harshcharita, a book on the life of Harshvardhana was written by Banabhata, who had also written Kadambari.
• He was defeated by Pulshekin II of the Chalukya dynasty.
12. South Indian Dynasties
12.1 The Sathavanas
• This dynasty was founded by Simuka. (65 BC)
• Satakarni was an important king.
• They constructed many buddhist worshipping sites- the important ones being at Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda.
• They issued the maximum number of lead coins.
• Sangam Literature relates primarily to Pandyan kingdom but also contains information about Cholas and Cheras.
• Tolkappiyam is the oldest book of Tamil grammar.
Three Major Southern Kingdoms
12.2 The Chalukyas (6th - 7th Century AD)
• Pulkeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty and established its capital at Vatapi.
• Pulkeshin II (609 AD - 642 AD) was the most important king.
• According to the Aihole inscriptions, he defeated Harshvardhana on the banks of river Narmada in 619 AD.
• Narasimhavarman I defeated and killed Pulkeshin II and captured Vadani.
• Most of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta and Ellora were structured during the reign of the Chalukyas.
• Aihole was the temple town of this period.
12.3 The Pallavas (560 AD – 903 AD)
• The Pallava dynasty was founded by Simhavishnu in 560 AD.
• Their Capital was at Kanch.
• Mahendravarman I was defeated by Pulakeshin II.
• Narasimhavarma I was the greatest king, and because he defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Badan, he was known as Vatapi-Konda.
• Narshimhavarma II constructed the shore temple of Mahabalipuram and the Kailashnath Temple of Kanchi.
• Narshimhavarma II was also a worshipper of Vishnu. He built the Vaikunthaperumal Temple at Kanchi.
• Aparajita Pallav was the last ruler and was defeated by Aditya Chola.
| Administrative Units of the Pallavas | Names of the Chiefs |
| Mandal (Province) | Rastrik |
| Nadu (District) | Deshatric |
| Village (Kottam - Group of Villages) | Gram Bhojak |
12.4 The Rashtrakutas
Founded by Dantidurga in Deccan, their capital was located at Manyakheta or Malkhed. Greatest kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty were:
i) Govind III (796 AD - 814 AD)
ii) Amoghavarsha I (814 AD - 978 AD) - He had written the first Kannada book - ‘Kavirajamarga.’ and Ratnamalika in Kannada.
iii) Krishna–I built the Kailash Temple at Ellora (in 9th century).
Administrative Units of the Rashtrakutas
Rashtras - the provinces
Visaya - the districts
Bhukti - the villages
12.5 The Cholas (850 -1200 AD)
• The Chola dynasty was founded by Vijayalaya in 850 AD.
• Early capital was situated at Uraiyur. Later the capital was shifted to Tanjore.
• Raja Raja I (985 AD - 1014 AD) was an important king.
- He constructed the Siva Temple at Tanjore which is also famous as Raja Rajeshvar Temple.
• Rajendra I (1014 AD- 1044AD) was called the Napolean of South India.
• The Cholas were famous for naval power and for their village administration.
Administrative Units of the Cholas
• Mandlam, the provinces
• Valanadusnadus, the districts
• Taniyur, the large villages
• The Village Assembly was constituted of
Urs - the assembly of common people.
Abha - the assembly of brahmins.
Nagaram - the assembly of merchants.
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